Category: Research

The Vanishing Glaciers of Peru’s Central Cordillera

/ activist360
Aerial view of retreating glaciers in Peru's Central Cordillera, highlighting the dramatic landscape changes.

Alonso Arias, Nicolás Núñez, Pedro Rau, Patrick Venail; Development of a spatial projection map of glacial retreat based on vulnerability maps in the Central Cordillera, Peru. Journal of Water and Climate Change 2024; jwc2024151. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2024.151

A Stark Warning of Climate Change’s Impact

In the heart of Peru, the Central Cordillera‘s glaciers are rapidly retreating, presenting an alarming forecast of what lies ahead if global warming continues unchecked. A recent study conducted by Alonso Arias and colleagues from the Centro de Investigación y Tecnología del Agua at Universidad de Ingeniería y Tecnología, Lima, provides a startling projection: a potential loss of 84–98% of these glaciers by the 2050s. This significant research highlights not only the critical vulnerabilities of Peru’s glacial landscapes but also underscores the broader implications for water resources and Andean communities dependent on these ice reserves.

The Study’s Approach

The research team utilized a sophisticated combination of remote sensing data and spatial analysis tools to map and project the retreat of glaciers from 1990 to 2021, extending these projections to 2055. By employing the frequency index and Shannon entropy index model, the study efficiently pinpoints areas most susceptible to rapid glacial retreat. This method allows for a nuanced understanding of how various factors like surface temperature, elevation, and precipitation interact to accelerate glacier melt. The authors of the study are optimistic that this innovative methodology will encourage similar research on other tropical glaciers in the region, enhancing our understanding and response to glacial retreat in comparable environments.

Implications for Water Resources

The implications of this study are profound. Glaciers in the Central Cordillera are a critical source of fresh water for the surrounding regions, supporting agriculture, hydroelectric power production, and daily water use. As these ice masses dwindle, the potential for water scarcity grows, posing a severe risk to food security and local economies. The study’s projections serve as a crucial tool for regional planners and policymakers, who must prepare for the future by adapting water management practices and developing new strategies to mitigate these impacts.

Human Impact and the Need for Action

The results of this study are crucial for policymakers and planners, as they provide a clear visualization of the areas at greatest risk and the potential timeline for change. These maps and data are essential for developing strategies to manage water resources and adapt to changing hydrological conditions that will impact agriculture, hydroelectric power production, and water supply for millions.

For communities in the Andes, the retreat of glaciers isn’t a distant, abstract problem; it’s a current crisis that threatens their way of life. This direct human connection makes the study particularly effective in communicating the urgency of the climate crisis.

Summing Up

The rapid retreat of Peru’s Central Cordillera glaciers is a microcosm of the global environmental challenges posed by climate change. The research by Alonso Arias and his team is more than a scientific study; it is a stark warning and a guide to potential solutions. By understanding the specific factors contributing to glacial retreat and visualizing their impacts through precise mapping, we can better prepare for and respond to the environmental changes that are reshaping our planet.

As readers and global citizens, we are called upon to support sustainable practices, advocate for responsible environmental policies, and educate ourselves and others about the impacts of climate change. The time for action is now—every effort counts in our collective quest to preserve our world for future generations.

Source: Alonso Arias, Nicolás Núñez, Pedro Rau, Patrick Venail; Development of a spatial projection map of glacial retreat based on vulnerability maps in the Central Cordillera, Peru. Journal of Water and Climate Change 2024; jwc2024151. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2024.151

The Pivotal Role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in Biodiversity Conservation

/ activist360


A social outcomes ladder of 6 types of roles of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in conservation governance, based on synthesis of 648 empirical studies.


As global biodiversity continues to face threats from various fronts, the role of Indigenous peoples (IPs) and local communities (LCs) has never been more crucial. A recent study published in One Earth underscores the need for an equitable governance approach that recognizes and empowers these groups, offering sustainable and effective solutions to conservation challenges. Let’s look at transformative roles that IPs and LCs can play in biodiversity conservation, in alignment with the Global Biodiversity Framework targets.

Understanding the Global Biodiversity Framework

The Global Biodiversity Framework, established during the Kunming-Montreal conference, sets ambitious targets to safeguard the planet’s biological resources. A key target within this framework is the conservation of 30% of land and sea areas by 2030 through equitably governed systems. This goal emphasizes the importance of recognizing diverse values, ensuring rights to ancestral territories, upholding cultural practices, and involving all relevant actors in decision-making processes to achieve effective conservation outcomes.

Empirical Evidence and Ecological Outcomes

A comprehensive review of 648 empirical studies reveals that conservation initiatives where IPs and LCs have equal partnership or primary control lead to more positive ecological outcomes. This evidence strongly supports a governance model that respects and integrates the knowledge systems and customary practices of IPs and LCs, enhancing biodiversity conservation’s effectiveness and sustainability.

The Changing Paradigm of Conservation Governance

Traditional conservation methods often overlooked the intrinsic value and knowledge of IPs and LCs, limiting their roles to mere participants. However, a shift towards equitable governance is gaining momentum, where these communities are not only participants but leaders with significant control and recognition of their traditional values and institutions. This approach is proving essential for the ecological success of conservation efforts.

Roles of IPs and LCs in Governance

The typology of roles that IPs and LCs can assume in conservation governance ranges from excluded to autonomous.

The typology structure includes six distinct roles that reflect varying levels of participation, influence, and control:

  1. Excluded: IPs and LCs have no participation or benefits.

  2. Consultees: Minimal influence despite receiving some information or benefits.

  3. Stakeholders: Some ability to influence decisions but limited control.

  4. Partners: Equal partners or co-managers, sharing power in conservation efforts.

  5. Primary Control: Primary authority with respected leadership and rights, though not fully autonomous.

  6. Autonomous: Full autonomy with their knowledge and institutions fully recognized.

Each role on this spectrum provides insights into how different levels of involvement and control impact conservation outcomes. The findings advocate for policies that elevate IPs and LCs from mere stakeholders to leaders, recognizing their capability to manage and conserve natural resources effectively.

Overview of Intervention Types in Conservation Initiatives

Theories about involvement in conservation management suggest that decision-making is a complex process that includes many participants from different levels, all with their own interests and levels of power. The types of interventions identified in the reviewed cases include:

  • Protected and Conserved Areas (67.9%): Most common, focusing on designated areas for biodiversity preservation.

  • Livelihood Projects or Tourism Ventures (56.9%): Projects supporting sustainable livelihoods or integrating conservation with tourism.

  • Species Protection or Sustainable Use Regulations (53.9%): Efforts focused on specific species protection or sustainable resource use.

  • Local or Indigenous Stewardship (36.7%): Direct management or major influence by IPs and LCs in conservation efforts.

  • Ecosystem Restoration (15.7%): Initiatives aimed at restoring ecosystems to their natural states.

  • Incentives, Compensation, Revenue Sharing, or Market Instruments (13.6%): Economic tools to promote conservation.

  • Education and Capacity Building (10.6%): Focus on educating IPs and LCs and building their capacity for conservation.

This complexity means we need to carefully analyze how much influence different participants have at various stages of the conservation efforts. Instead of using simple measures like how often IPs and LCs attend meetings or their personal views on conservation, we should look more deeply at how meaningful their participation is and how the conservation processes are governed. This detailed examination will help us better understand the true role of IPs and LCs in making conservation decisions.

Statistical Analysis and Policy Implications

Statistical analyses corroborate that higher degrees of control and participation by IPs and LCs correlate with favorable ecological and social outcomes. These outcomes not only emphasize the need for a policy shift towards more inclusive governance but also highlight the importance of IPs and LCs in achieving the targets set by the Global Biodiversity Framework. The study suggests that empowering IPs and LCs is not just beneficial but necessary for the long-term success of global biodiversity conservation.

Summing Up

The pivotal role of IPs and LCs in biodiversity conservation is clear. By transitioning to governance models that provide full recognition and control to these communities, conservation efforts can be significantly more effective and equitable. It’s time for conservation policies and practices to reflect this reality, ensuring that IPs and LCs are at the forefront of the decision-making processes, thus safeguarding biodiversity for future generations.

Source: Dawson, N. M., Coolsaet, B., Bhardwaj, A., Booker, F., Brown, D., Lliso, B., Loos, J., Martin, A., Oliva, M., Pascual, U., Sherpa, P., & Worsdell, T. (2024). Is it just conservation? A typology of Indigenous peoples’ and local communities’ roles in conserving biodiversity. One Earth.

Exploring Climate-Related Financial Risks: Insights from the Federal Reserve’s Pilot CSA Exercise

/ activist360


Federal Reserve Board Building, 1936 (Paul Philippe Cret, architect). The Eccles Building. Credit: Photo by Pedrik, Flickr.


In May 2024, the Federal Reserve Board conducted a pilot Climate Scenario Analysis (CSA) exercise involving six of the largest U.S. bank holding companies—Bank of America, Citigroup, Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, Morgan Stanley, and Wells Fargo. This exploratory exercise was designed to assess how these major financial institutions manage and understand the potential impacts of climate-related financial risks on their operations.

Objectives of the Pilot CSA Exercise

The primary goal of the pilot CSA was to enhance the ability of both banks and regulatory bodies to identify, estimate, monitor, and manage climate-related financial risks effectively. By simulating both physical and transition risks associated with climate change, the exercise aimed to test the resilience of business models to a range of climate scenarios.

Key Insights from the Exercise

The pilot CSA exercise highlighted varied approaches to climate risk among banks, significant data gaps, and the critical role of insurance in risk mitigation. The unpredictability of climate event timings adds complexity to integrating these risks into existing frameworks.

  • Varied Methodological Approaches: The exercise revealed that participating banks utilized diverse approaches to integrate climate risk scenarios into their risk assessments. These varied primarily due to differences in their business models, data accessibility, and previous experiences with similar exercises in other jurisdictions.

  • Significant Data and Modeling Challenges: One of the critical challenges highlighted was the lack of comprehensive and consistent data, particularly related to property characteristics and the climate risk management plans of counterparties. Many banks depended on external vendors to supplement these data gaps.

  • The Crucial Role of Insurance: The pilot underscored the importance of insurance in mitigating climate risks. The changing landscape of the insurance industry, including fluctuating costs and coverage, was noted as a critical area for ongoing monitoring.

  • Concerns Over Indirect and Chronic Risks: Participants acknowledged the need to better understand the broader economic impacts of local disruptions and long-term changes such as sea level rise, which are essential for comprehensive risk management.

  • Uncertainty in Risk Measurement: The inherent uncertainties around the timing and severity of climate impacts make it challenging for banks to integrate these risks into their standard risk management frameworks.

Building on these key insights, the exercise delved into specific risk modules to further explore how these challenges manifest in the context of physical and transition risks.

Modules Explored in the Exercise

The Physical Risk Module analyzed the impacts of climate events like hurricanes on real estate portfolios, while the Transition Risk Module evaluated the economic effects of shifting to a lower-carbon economy on asset values and business operations.

  • Physical Risk Module: This module focused on the direct impacts of acute climate-related events like hurricanes and floods on banks’ real estate portfolios, examining both immediate property damages and subsequent credit risks.

  • Transition Risk Module: It dealt with the financial strains from transitioning towards a lower-carbon economy, capturing risks to asset values and the overall viability of business operations.

The key insights from the pilot CSA exercise, which highlighted varied methodological approaches and significant data challenges, directly informed the focus and findings of the Physical and Transition Risk Modules that assessed the impacts of climate-related events and economic transitions on financial institutions.

Governance and Risk Management Enhancements

The exercise prompted banks to adapt their existing governance frameworks to address the specific challenges posed by climate risks. This adaptation included integrating tailored internal controls and audit processes to ensure compliance and effectiveness in managing these new risk types.

Importance of a Healthy Financial System to Climate Concerns

A healthy financial system is vital for addressing climate concerns as it supports funding for climate initiatives, ensures economic stability, facilitates effective insurance and risk management, allocates resources efficiently, funds innovation and research, and boosts consumer confidence and spending.

Summing Up

The pilot CSA exercise highlighted the complex nature of climate-related financial risks and the critical need for banks to continue enhancing their data handling, modeling techniques, and scenario analysis to capture these risks accurately. As banks work towards these improvements, the insights gained from this exercise will help in shaping better practices and policies to protect the financial system from potential climate disruptions.

Source: Federal Reserve Board. (2024). Pilot Climate Scenario Analysis Exercise Summary: Summary of Participants’ Risk-Management Practices and Estimates. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.